↑ Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE, Holtzman DM (2015). “Chapter 16: Reinforcement and Addictive Disorders”. Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (ấn bản 3). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. ISBN9780071827706. Pharmacologic treatment for psychostimulant addiction is generally unsatisfactory. As previously discussed, cessation of cocaine use and the use of other psychostimulants in dependent individuals does not produce a physical withdrawal syndrome but may produce dysphoria, anhedonia, and an intense desire to reinitiate drug use.
↑ J. Saarma "Kliiniline psühhiaatria". Tallinn, 1980, p. 139
↑ I. Boileau; A. Dagher; M. Leyton; R. N. Gunn; G. B. Baker; M. Diksic; C. Benkelfat (2006). “Modeling Sensitization to Stimulants in Humans: An [11C]Raclopride/Positron Emission Tomography Study in Healthy Men”. Arch Gen Psychiatry63 (12): 1386–1395. PMID17146013. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.63.12.1386.
↑ Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). “15”. Trong Sydor A, Brown RY. Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (ấn bản 2). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. tr. 370. ISBN9780071481274. Unlike cocaine and amphetamine, methamphetamine is directly toxic to midbrain dopamine neurons.
↑ Krasnova IN, Cadet JL (tháng 5 năm 2009). “Methamphetamine toxicity and messengers of death”. Brain Res Rev 60 (2): 379–407. PMC2731235. PMID19328213. doi:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2009.03.002. Neuroimaging studies have revealed that METH can indeed cause neurodegenerative changes in the brains of human addicts (Aron and Paulus, 2007; Chang et al., 2007). These abnormalities include persistent decreases in the levels of dopamine transporters (DAT) in the orbitofrontal cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and the caudate-putamen (McCann et al., 1998, 2008; Sekine et al., 2003; Volkow et al., 2001a, 2001c). The density of serotonin transporters (5-HTT) is also decreased in the midbrain, caudate, putamen, hypothalamus, thalamus, the orbitofrontal, temporal, and cingulate cortices of METH-dependent individuals (Sekine et al., 2006).
